2.3 考研真题与典型题详解
I. Fill in the blanks
1The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as _____. (中山大学2008研)
【答案】interlanguage
【解析】中介语是在外语或第二语言学习中形成的。
2_____ is formed when the leaner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither. (中山大学2006研)
【答案】Interlanguage
【解析】当学习者学习一种新语言时，就产生了中介语。中介语具有第一语言和第二语言的特征，但中介语是一个动态的语言系统，我们不能把中介语看成是母语和二语的过渡阶段或者是二者的简单混合。
3Error is the grammatically incorrect form; _____ appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context. (中山大学2008研)
【答案】mistake
【解析】mistake是指在语法上正确但在交流语境中不恰当。
4In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge. This process is called language _____.
【答案】transfer
【解析】学习第二语言时不自觉地使用第一语言的过程叫语言移转。
5Such errors as “teached” and “womans” are caused by _____.
【解析】这些错误一般是第二语言习得者犯的。
6Psycholinguistics is a branch of linguistics which is the study of psychological aspects of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field，it investigates the following major subjects: _____ . _____ and _____.
【答案】acquisition, comprehension , production
【解析】心理语言学作为语言学的一个分支，是从心理学的角度来研究语言，主要包括语言习得，语言理解和语言产生。
7In linguistics, _____ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.(中山大学2008研)
【答案】syntax
【解析】句法学研究形成正确句子的规则。
8The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called _____. (北二外2008研)
【答案】syntax
【解析】句法学研究语言中组合成句子的支配规则，或简单地说，研究句子的构造。
9_____ is the study of the language-processing mechanisms. It is concerned with the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language; _____, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. They both belong to branches of macrolinguistics. (人大2006研)
【答案】psycholinguistics; sociolinguistics
【解析】心理语言学研究语言处理机制，如语言的记忆，理解及习得等；社会语言学研究语言与社会之间的关系。
II. Multiple Choice
1In Krashen’s monitor theory, “i” in “i + 1” hypothesis of second language acquisition refers to _____. (对外经贸2006研)
A. interaction
B. interference
C. input
D. intake
【答案】C
【解析】克拉申的“监控理论”中有一种二语习得输入假说，他用i表示学习者现有水平，用1表示略高于的水平，这就是克拉申的“i﹢1”输入假说。
2Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as _____.
A. interference
B. interlanguage
C. fossilization
D. acculturation
【答案】A
【解析】语言学习者在学习第二语言时，难免受到母语的种种影响。其中有正面的影响，称作正迁移，也有负面的影响，称作负迁移或者干扰。
3_____ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of L1 habits over which the learner had no control.
A. error analysis
B. performance analysis
C. contrastive analysis
D. discourse analysis
【答案】C
【解析】对比分析是通过对比不同语言来确定潜在错误的方法，它将错误看作是受母语习惯的结果，并认为这是学习者无法控制的。
4_____ is the study of psychological aspect of language.
A. 1anguage acquisition
B. applied linguistics
C. psycholinguistics
D. pragmatics
【答案】A
【解析】语言习得是从心理学的角度来研究语言，主要研究儿童不自觉地自然地掌握母语的过程。
5_____ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
A. Competence
B. Performance
C. Learning
D. Acquisition
【答案】C
【解析】在学校里我们会学到第二语言，对第二语言知识的这种有意识的积累，叫做“学习”。
6During language acquisition, children go through several stages, during which stage they begin to have sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in their parents’ language.
A. Holophrastic stage
B. Two word stage
C. Three word stage
D. Fluent grammatical conversation stage
【答案】A
【解析】孩子们的语言习得要经历三个阶段，单词句阶段，双词句阶段，以及三词句阶段。在单词句阶段，孩子们会对其父母话语中的语音特征特别敏感。
III. True or False
1If a child is deprived of linguistic environment，he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on.
【答案】T
【解析】如果一个孩子失去了语言环境，他或她是不可能成功地学好一种语言的。
2When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the sounds that are not part of the language, they can acquire any sounds in their native language once their parents teach them.
【答案】F
【解析】不论孩子们生活在何种语言环境中，他们首先获得的是世上所有语言的普遍性知识，之后他们才会学习更为复杂的语言。
3Through hard work, the second language learners can usually reach the level of the native speakers in the target language learning.
【答案】F
【解析】第二语言的学习者一般达不到如其本族语一样的能力。他们会创造被称为中介语或学习者语言的语言，会在某种程度上出现语言石化现象。
4Language acquisition refers to the process involved in creating and expressing meaning through language.
【答案】F
【解析】语言产出是一个通过语言来表达意义的过程。
IV. Explain the following terms
1Language acquisition (浙江大学2004研)
【答案】Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.
2Psycholiguistics
【答案】Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it mainly studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguists investigate the relationship between language and thought, Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the role they play in our thinking.
3The Innateness Hypothesis
【答案】The innateness hypothesis was proposed by Chomsky. It says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is born with this knowledge of basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal.
4Language Acquisition Device(LAD)(武汉大学2005研)
【答案】Chomsky referred to children’s innate ability to learn their native language as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. The “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.
5The Teachability Hypothesis
【答案】According to the teachability hypothesis, grammatical structures can be classified according to the demands they make on the learner’s working memory. The greater the demands the more difficult the structure is to learn. An item will only be acquired, and therefore should only be taught, when the learner is developmentally ready to acquire it.
6The Interactional Hypothesis
【答案】According to this hypothesis, language is acquired as learners actively engage in attempting to communicate in the target language. The hypothesis is consistent with the experiential philosophy of “learning by doing.” Acquisition will be maximized when learners engage in tasks that “push” them to the limits of their current competence.
V. Short answer questions
1How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? (北二外2008研)
【答案】We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.
2What are sociolinguistics of society and sociolinguistics of language? (武汉大学2007研)
【答案】
If we want to know more about a given society or community by examining the linguistic behavior of its members, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of society. That is, we are doing sociolinguistics at a macro level of investigation. At this level of discussion, things that we are interested in include bilingualism or multilingualism, language attitudes, language choice, language maintenance and shift, language planning and standardization, vernacular language education, and so on.
On the other hand, if we want to know more about some linguistic variations in language use by turning to potential socio-cultural factors for a description and explanation, we are doing a sociolinguistic study of language. Consequently, we are more interested in examining micro linguistic phenomena such as structural variants, address forms, gender differences, discourse analysis, Pidgin and Creole languages, and other more language related issues.
3What are the four obvious barriers to adult L2 acquisition? (浙江大学2003研)
【答案】A variety of explanations have been put forward for the apparent declined in adults: physical factors such as the loss of “plasticity” in the brain and “lateralization” of the brain; social factors such as the different situations and relationships that children encounter compared to adults; cognitive factors such as the interference with natural language learning by the adult’s more abstract mode of thinking; and input factors that adults spend only a few hours each week of school time, rather than via the constant interaction experienced by a child, with a lot of other occupations.
4Discuss the influence of motivation on language acquisition.
【答案】
Motivation involves the affective states that influence the degree of effort that learners make to learn a language. Various kinds of motivation have been identified: instrumental, integrative, resultative, and intrinsic.
Under instrumental motivation learners make efforts to learn a language for some functional reason, namely, to pass an examination, etc. Under integrative motivation learners identify with another ethnolinguistic group. Under resultative motivation learners’ success in learning may result in their enthusiasm in learning further. Intrinsic motivation due to their curiosity, interest, etc. may force learners holding no distinct attitudes towards the target-language group to do the learning tasks they are asked to.
Motivation is a highly complex phenomenon. These four types of motivation should be seen as complementary rather than as distinct and oppositional. Furthermore, motivation is dynamic in nature; it is not something that a learner has or does not have but rather something that varies from one moment to the next depending on the learning context or task.
5Discuss why second language learners, regardless of their first language, might produce forms such as goed, sheeps, and coulds given that they never hear these forms in input from native speakers of English. Give some other forms analogous to the above that might be generated.
【答案】
Forms like “goed”, “sheeps”, and “coulds” results from analogous creation of second language learners. It is a kind of interlanguage produced in the process of second language acquisition. Having acquired some basic English grammars, for example, the common past form for English verbs is to add a suffix “-ed” to the end of the verb, those English-learners easily assumed that all the English verb should change their form like that in past tense. However, there are exceptions as “go-went”, “sing-sang” and so on. Those English-learners fail to see those exceptions and created all the past forms analogously, thus produce the wrong forms like “goed”.
Other examples:
run-runned(ran), child-childs(children), must-musts.
6Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two? (北外2011研)
【答案】
The difference between internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition.
(1) The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge of language. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.
(2) According to the above difference, the linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. Originally Chomsky referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device, also known as LAD. Later Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar (UG) and holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.
The interaetionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition.
7What are the different views of input hypothesis and interaction hypothesis on discourse’s contribution to language acquisition?
【答案】Input hypothesis proposed by Krashen, holds that language acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at “i + 1” (i. e. are a little more advanced than the current state of the learner’s interlanguage). In other words, language acquisition depends on comprehensible input. Interaction hypothesis by Michael Long, also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning.
8What is the INPUT HYPOTHESIS?
【答案】According to Krashen’s INPUT HYPOTHESIS (1985), learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1” principle, i. e. the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither he so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all.
VI. Essay questions
1Krashen’s Input Hypothesis and Language Learning. (北交大2006研)
【答案】Input hypothesis claims that “Human acquire language in only one way—by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’”. According to Krashen, input that is useful for L2 acquisition must be neither too difficult nor too easy to understand and ought to be tuned just right to learner’s current level, represented as i. In the course of acquiring the L2, learners progress from one level to another. The next level is called “i +1”. For i +1 to occur, the input has to be slightly beyond the level at which learners are well proficient. The gap between i and i +1 is bridged by comprehensible input, which is the information drawn from the context and previous experience. Comprehensible input is considered both necessary and sufficient for L2 acquisition to occur and output plays little role. In other words, L2 learning takes place because the data to which learners are exposed contain comprehensible input.
According to Krashen’s acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways to approach language learning: acquisition and learning. Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent speech. Learning, which is a conscious study of form, helps us edit this speech. In other words, when we learn something it won’t help us produce fluent communication, but it will help us monitor our communication and correct minor errors.
It can only occur if three conditions are fulfilled: The performer has to have enough time; the performer has to be thinking about correctness and the performer has to know the rule. Learners will be most likely to use the Monitor in formal exam situations, where their attention has been drawn to linguistic form, and where they have enough time. If all these conditions are fulfilled, the Monitor may be used, but may be used inaccurately.
2What do you think are the similarities and dissimilarities between learning a first and a second language? (北外2003研)
【答案】
Similarities between first and second language acquisition:
(1) Both L1 and L2 are constructed from prior conceptual knowledge. Language emerges as a procedural acquisition to deal with events that the child already understands conceptually and to achieve communicative objectives that the child can realize by the other means.
(2) Second language learners seem to use similar strategies to those learning their first language.
(3) Overgeneralization and transfer are used by both L1 and L2 learner as the result of a necessity to reduce language to the simplest possible system, as an effort to lessen the cognitive burden involved in trying to master something as complex as language.
(4) The L2 learner, like the first, attempts to “regularize, analogize, and simplify” in an effort to communicate.
(5) Speech addressed to children (motherese) and speech addressed to foreigners (foreign talk) present similarities: shorter sentences, high-frequency vocabulary, “here and now” times, indirect correction, frequent gesture, lack of overt attention to form.
(6) A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language (L1 and L2) in a particular sequence and in a particular mode (silent period).
(7) Both groups are probably using the same learning process. For example, the L2 sequence for English grammatical morphemes was similar, though not identical, to that found in L1 acquisition. Other similar sequences of syntactic acquisition have been found in L1 and L2 learning. L2 learners such as L2 learners, like L1 children, at first put negative elements at the beginning of the sentence “No the sun shining” and then progress to negation within the sentence “That’s no ready.”
Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition:
(1) L2 learners are usually older when learning their L2. Therefore, they are more developed cognitively. They have a greater knowledge of the world in general; they have more control over the input they receive; they are able to learn and apply rules that may aid in facilitating the acquisition process; they have one or more cultures that give them advanced information about expectations, discourse in general, and how to get things done with language.
(2) Older learners may have increased inhibition and anxiety and may find themselves afraid to make errors (poor attitudes and lack of motivation); there might be interference form the L1, particularly for items that are similar, either structurally or semantically.
(3) L1 acquisition is completely successful, but L2 learning is not. The evidence for this deficiency is held to be the lack of completeness of L2 grammars or the fossilization in L2 learning where the learner cannot progress beyond some particular stages, both familiar ‘facts’ in some sense.
(4) The variation in situation and other factors also produces many differences between L1 acquisition and L2 learning. L1 children mostly acquire language in different settings with different exposure to language than L2 learners and they are at different stages of mental and social maturity.
In all, the differences exist in levels of cognitive development and affect and the similarities exist in the process of acquisition itself.
3Describe the process of language perception, comprehension and production.
【答案】
From the perspective of psycholinguistic analysis, language use in terms of perception, comprehension and production follows a certain pattern which involves the coordination of various language centers.
When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke’s area and transferred to Broca’s area, which determines the details of their forms and pronunciation. The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area which controls the vocal tract to physically articulate the words.
When we hear something and try to comprehend it, the stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke’s area, where it is then interpreted.
When we perceive a visual image, a message is sent to the angular gyrus, where it is converted into a visual pattern.
4Research has found that two-year-old English children produce negative sentences such as a) to d), but not e):
a) He doesn’t like cabbage.
b) Doesn’t like cabbage.
c) Him no like cabbage.
d) No like cabbage.
e) Him doesn’t like cabbage.
How can you account for this? (北外2006研)
【答案】
This founding firstly demonstrates one point that the acquisition of auxiliary verbs comes later than that of comparatively “simpler” morphemes such as pronouns. Therefore, it is unlikely for children to make mistakes as shown in e). The reason for this phenomenon could be explained by the fact that in the early stage of children’s language acquisition, the speech at first only contains content words and lacks the function elements.
This founding also shows that children have a certain process of learning the negative form. There are generally three stages.
(1) At first, the negative element is not part of the structure of the sentences. It is simply attached to the beginning, as shown in d).
(2) The negative element is inserted into the sentence. The additional negative forms don’t and can’t are used, and with no and not, begin to be placed in front of the verb rather than at the beginning, as shown in c).
(3) Children begin to produce the appropriate part of do, be or the model verbs, to suit the person or tense, as shown in b) and a).
5Explain Krashen’s Input Hypothesis and Monitor Hypothesis. (浙江大学2003研)
【答案】
Input hypothesis claims that “Human acquire language in only one way—by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’”. According to Krashen, input that is useful for L2 acquisition must be neither too difficult nor too easy to understand and ought to be tuned just right to learner’s current level, represented as i. In the course of acquiring the L2, learners progress form one level to another. The next level is called “i +1”. For i +1 to occur, the input has to be slightly beyond the level at which learners are well proficient. The gap between i and i +1 is bridged by comprehensible input, which is the information drawn from the context and previous experience. Comprehensible input is considered both necessary and sufficient for L2 acquisition to occur and output plays little role. In other words, L2 learning takes place because the data to which learners are exposed contain comprehensible input.
According to Krashen’s acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways to approach language learning: acquisition and learning. Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent speech. Learning, which is a conscious study of form, helps us edit this speech. In other words, when we learn something it won’t help us produce fluent communication, but it will help us monitor our communication and correct minor errors.
It can only occur if three conditions are fulfilled: The performer has to have enough time; the performer has to be thinking about correctness and the performer has to know the rule. Learners will be most likely to use the Monitor in formal exam situations, where their attention has been drawn to linguistic form, and where they have enough time. If all these conditions are fulfilled, the Monitor may be used, but may be used inaccurately.
6Some comments on the following statement based on your own experience “A condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understands (via hearing or reading) input language that contains structure ‘a bit beyond’ his or her current level of competence...If an acquirer is at stage or level i, the input he or she understands should contain i +I…The best acquisition will occur in contexts where the ‘affective filter’ (anxiety) is low.” (Krashen 1981)(武汉大学2006研)
【答案】
This statement is related to Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, according to which, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them, and the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all.
This hypothesis has in fact confirmed the importance of the input accessible to the learner learning a language. Additionally, the input must be comprehensible if it is to have any effect on learning. However, there are still some problems concerned with the nature of the input, for example, how to determine whether an input is “i+1”, or only “i”, or even “i+2”.
The affective filter is used to refer to the complex of negative emotional and motivational factors that may interfere with the reception and processing of comprehensible input. This filter turns on when anxiety is high, self-esteem is low, or motivation is low. Basically, if you are stressed, uncomfortable, or unmotivated, you are unlikely to learn anything. Therefore, low anxiety is better for language acquisition.
To some extent, the supply of “i+1” input could help lower the affective filter, since it is believed that the appropriate input will arouse the learner’s learning motivation as well as producing challenges to him.
7It has been noticed that Chinese learners of English tend to make mistakes in the marking of past tense, even at the advanced level of proficiency. What do you think are the possible causes of this problem? How call language teachers help solve this problem and why? (北外2005研)
【答案】
Tenses are one of the most difficult aspects for Chinese to master because of the non-inflected nature of the Chinese language In English, the different forms of the verb can tell us whether something is happening in the present or in the past. This information is technically termed as tense. The tense is shown by adding related morphemes at the end of the verb. So the learners can judge the tense easily by looking at the different verb forms. However, the Chinese verb form does not have a well-defined past, present or future tense. In writing or in speaking, the Chinese verb in the sentence does not necessarily inform the reader or listener as to whether they are referring to the past, present or future. Therefore, Chinese often places prepositional, phrases, as well as conjunctive adverbs (e.g. Mandarin Chinese le, guo) that indicate time at the front of the sentence so as to inform the speaker or the reader of the appropriate tense. The different ways of expressing the tense cause Chinese learners of English tend to make mistakes in the marking of tense. When translating into English, Chinese writers sometimes forget that English has a well-defined past/present/future verb tense. Therefore, the unconscious tendency of placing several prepositional or other phrases that indicate time at the front of the sentence is often redundant or neglect using different tense form of verb. Another factor which contributes to the difficulties is the difference in the concept of time of Chinese as compared to native speakers of English. Different concepts of time of non-native speakers with those of native speakers contribute to their difficulties in learning the English tenses.
As the learning of tenses, Chinese learners are faced with a totally new set of classification of time situations that have no counterpart in their own native language. So in teaching English tenses teachers have to explain English time attributes thoroughly rather than assuming L2 learners will understand them as long as they have acquired the rules. For example, past tense is used for situations which are less probable, or more remote. A lot of Chinese do not have this concept and teachers should spend time in clarifying this to them. Teachers can also allow learners to understand the meanings of the two broad types of English and Chinese tenses and their differences in teaching Chinese learners. Through the comparison of different ways of expressing tense, the teacher can provide the students a clear framework and then students will take special notice in using verb associated with tense.
8Analyze the following speech errors. by commenting on how they might have arisen (北外2006研)
a. He rode his bike to school tomorrow. (←yesterday)
b. gone mild. (←wild/mad)
c. He misfumbled the ball. (←mishandled/fumbled)
d. That’s torrible. (←terrible/horrible)
【答案】
The speech errors arise above can be grouped into two: instance a as one group, and b, c, d as another.
Producing a speech may involve the following 5 steps: 1, the message-level representation; 2, the functional-level representation; 3, the positional-level representation; 4, the phonetic-level representation; 5, the articulatory-level representation.
The error occurring in a is possibly related to the Semantic Association Network. Therefore, it probably arises in step3, in which the words of the sentence that is to be produced are incorporated. And Semantic Association Network is such a network that it represents the relationships between various semantically related words. Thus, it may happen like this: when the speaker wants to express the meaning of “yesterday”, some other members of the association network referring to the time is activated, such as “tomorrow”. Then the later probably replace the original one “yesterday”, and through the proceeding steps of 4 and 5, the meaning of “tomorrow” is produced, although what the speaker originally wanted to mean is “yesterday”.
The errors that arise in b, c, d, may be related to steps 3 and 4. We can see obviously from b to d that after step 2, what the speaker wants to express is already clear. And for a same meaning, the speaker obviously has two different words in his mind. However, he may go into the step3 before make a definite selection between the two different expressions. Therefore, going into step 4, which indicates some the necessary information about the ways in which words in the intended sentence are pronounced, he has two phonetic representation emerged altogether. As a consequence, in the last step, the articulating of the words, with two different expressions at a time, the speaker presents an expression involving the two words.
9Use contrastive or non-contrastive strategies to analyze the underlined errors and mistakes committed by Chinese learners of English. (浙江大学2007研)
a. As for meal, we Chinese like to eat chopsticks, and you spoons.
b. You have helped me a lot. Really troubled you.
c. They are happy but we are far more happier.
【答案】
Contrastive analysis and non-contrastive analysis are two major approaches to error analysis. It has been found a large percentage of the errors are directly related to the learner’s mother tongue. The systematic study of evidence of the influence of the mother tongue is called contrastive analysis. Therefore, contrastive analysis has to taking the source and the target language into consideration. However, not all errors are caused by the interference of the mother tongue, such as overgeneralizations and hypercorrections. The analysis based on such intra-language factors is called non-contrastive analysis.
As for sentence a, the correct expression should probably be “eat with chopsticks”. When recalling the corresponding expression in Chinese, we might get “我们中国人喜欢用筷子吃”, and therefore it could be seen that in Chinese a preposition is also required. In this sense, the mistake occurring in this sentence is probably not caused by the interference of Chinese. Therefore, it might be more proper to be regarded as an inter-lingual error which might be caused by the unfamiliarity of the preposition “with”.
The mistake in sentence b, however, could be attributed to the negative transfer of Chinese, since in Chinese, there exists a corresponding expression “真是麻烦你了”. This transfer has in some way shown the differences between Chinese and English, such as the difference in syntactic structure. The Chinese language does not obligatorily require the occurrence of the Subject in a sentence, while in English it is obligatory to have a Subject in a sentence.
The mistake in sentence c is one obviously not caused by the interference of Chinese. This mistake is also an inter-lingual one, as it concerns about the use of the comparative form of adjectives in English. In Chinese, there is no corresponding structure as in English. And this could be seen as a misuse of the comparative form of adjectives.
10It has been noted that first language (L1) acquisition is completely successful，but second language (L2) learning is usually not. As Towell & Hawkins (1994: P. 14) observe, ‘Very few L2 learners appear to be fully successful in the way that native speakers are’. How do you account for this difference in ultimate attainment between L1 and L2 acquisition? (北外2006研)
【答案】
There can be generally three possible reasons, one related to the language learner himself, one to the language itself, and one to the culture.
L2 learners are usually older when learning their L2. Older learners may have increased inhibition and anxiety and may find themselves afraid to make errors (poor attitudes and lack of motivation); there might be interference form the L1, particularly for items that are similar, either structurally or semantically.
According to the generative approach, the acquisition of L1 is greatly owed to the innateness of the universal grammar. It is a natural development of a child, and with large amount of input, which activates the universal grammar in the brain, the child could acquire L1 successful. In the acquisition of L2, however, there is the existence of the L1 transfer. The transfer may sometimes functions as a positive one, but there are also the negative transfers, which may function as the obstacles during L2 acquisition.
What’s more, a speaker who learns a L2 usually cannot be totally involved into the culture of L2. However, as we know, language is closely related to the culture. Language is an essential and important part of a culture, and culture has impact upon the language, not only in language changes, but also in language use. A speaker, with L1 as his native language, often knows much better about his culture, which is related to L1 than he does about L2. Therefore, with less culture exposure, a speaker is usually more successfully in L1 acquisition than L2 acquisition.
11What factors influence the acquisition of the second language? (厦门大学2008研)
【答案】
There are mainly two kinds of factors that influence the second language acquisition.
1) Internal factors. Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the particular learning situation.
a. Age: Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who already have solid literacy skills in their own language, seem to be in the best position to acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can be very successful too, but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and intonation.
b. Personality: Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in the development of oral skills. More outgoing students will not worry about the inevitability of making mistakes.
c. Motivation: Intrinsic motivation has been found to correlate strongly with educational achievement. Extrinsic motivation is also a significant factor. ESL students, for example, who need to learn English in order to take a place at an American university or to communicate with a new English boy/girlfriend, are likely to make greater efforts and thus greater progress.
d. Experiences: Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a stronger position to develop a new language than those who haven’t.
e. Cognition: In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities will make the faster progress. Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in others.
f. Native language: Students who are learning a second language which is from the same language family as their first language have, in general, a much easier task than those who aren’t.
2) External factors
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation.
a. Curriculum: For ESL students in particular it is important that the totality of their educational experience is appropriate for their needs.
b. Instruction: Clearly, some language teachers are better than others at providing appropriate and effective learning experiences for the students in their classrooms. These students will make faster progress.
c. Culture and status: There is some evidence that students in situations where their own culture has a lower status than that of the culture in which they are learning the language make slower progress.
d. Motivation: Students who are given continuing, appropriate encouragement to learn by their teachers and parents will generally fare better than those who aren’t.
e. Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the classroom is a significant advantage.
12The relation of linguistics to language teaching and learning.(武汉大学2006研)
【答案】
There is a branch of linguistics called applied linguistics, which studies the application of linguistics in the reality, such as in language teaching and learning. Applied Linguistics serves as a mediating area which interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user-friendly to the language teacher and learner. It is conducive to foreign language teaching in two major aspects:
Firstly, applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction of language learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching. Applied linguistics provides the teacher with a formal knowledge of the nature of language and language system, and thus increases his understanding of the nature of language teaching. As a result, the teacher can make more informed decisions on what approach to take, hence what to teach.
Secondly, applied linguistics states the insights and implications that linguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology. Once the goal and content of the teaching are settled, the teacher has to consider questions of how to teach. Should the teaching learning process be teacher-centered, textbook-centered, or learner-centered? How should the learner’s errors be treated? What techniques should be adopted in the classroom? Since applied linguistics defines the nature of language learning in connection with various linguistic theories, it helps the teacher to choose teaching methods and techniques.
13What can linguistics do for language learning and teaching? (北京师范大学2004研)
【答案】Since linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language, it seems obvious that such a study would help a lot in language teaching and learning. Applied linguistics serves as a mediating area that interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user-friendly to the language teacher and leaner. Applied linguistics is conductive to foreign language teaching in two major aspects. Firstly, applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction of language learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching. The teacher can make more informed decisions on what approach to take, hence what to teach. Secondly, applied linguistics states that the insights and implications that linguistics theories have on the language teaching methodology. Once the goal and content of the teaching are settled, the teacher has to consider questions of how to teach. Since applied linguistics defines the nature of language learning in connection with various linguistic theories, it helps the teacher to choose teaching methods and techniques.
14Dialogues 1) and 2) were produced by an English child aged 2 years and 4 months and her mother. Dialogues 3) and 4) were produced by another English child aged 3 years and 11 months and her mother, i. Describe the language of the two children lexically, syntactically, semantically and pragmatically, ii. Discuss the similarities and differences you notice in their language. (C refers to child, and M mother.) (北外2008研)
1) C: me want that piano.
M: you’ve got a real piano.
C: why?
M: it’s upstairs.
C: why? why?
M: what do you mean why?
C: why?
2) C: me want to read that.
M: okay. Let’s read that.
C: read that, wrong side.
M: I think you’ve got it upside down.
C: look, look her toe.
M: I think they’re funny shoes actually, made to look like toes.
C: why?
3) (Looking at a picture book)
M: that’s an animal called an iguana, don’t you like that?
C: cover he’s face.
M: oh why? don’t you like it?
C: no he’s—
M: he’s rather a friendly iguana.
C: what are guanas?
M: Iguanas. It’s a sort of lizard—animal—green animal.
4) C: when is Daddy going to come back?
M: quite soon. I think love.
C: at eight o’clock?
M: no. I hope he’ll be back at one o’clock.
C: Mummy, he’s going to be back at eight o’clock.
M: is he?
【答案】
i.1) As to the utterance of the 2 years and 4 months old child, lexically, “me” was used instead of “I”; “at” was missed in the sentence “look her toe” and inflection “-s” doesn’t add to the word “toe”; “the” and “a” are not used in the child’s utterance. That “piano” is wrongly pronounced may not only show that the child’s failure of acquiring the pronunciation of diphthongs but also the failure of acquiring the word “piano”, a comparatively complicated word.
From the perspective of syntax, the child constructs two complete SVO sentences: “me want that piano.” and “me want to read that.” except for the mistakenly using “me”. In the latter sentence, the child uses “want to read” may indicate that he/she could use to-infinitives. What’s more, there are several verb phrases in the child’s utterance, like “read that”, “look her toe”, and adjective phrase “wrong side”. Besides, the child uses “why” to ask question.
Semantically, the child may use “why” instead of all “wh-” questions, such as where, what etc. When the child uses “toe”, he/she may refer to the whole part of feet including shoes. Such phenomena indicate the child’s overextension of meaning of word.
When the child uses language, we cannot say whether he/she observe any maxim of cooperation principle either in surface or deep sense, because he/she doesn’t have the ability to give enough information and make an conversation as is required.
2) Regarding to the utterance of the 3 years and 11 months old child, lexically, “he’s” is used instead of “his”; plural forms are used in “What are guanas?”; more complicated words like “guanas” are used; “at” is not missed in “at eight o’clock”; and “to be” turns up.
Syntactically, more complicated sentences are constructed by the child, like “wh-” questions and negative answer. For example, he/she uses more wh- questions like “what are guanas” and “when is Daddy going to come back”; besides, he/she uses “no” to answer his/her mother. He can use a present continuous tense “is going to” to express the future.
Semantically, the child insists that his father will be back at eight o’clock may because that he/she think “quite soon” refers to “eight o’clock”, which shows that the child specified “quite soon” to a certain time “eight o’clock”.
Pragmatically, we cannot say whether the child observe any maxim of cooperation principle either in surface or deep sense, because he/she doesn’t have the ability to give enough information and make an conversation as is required.
ii. Differences: Compared to the younger child, the older one can produce more vocabulary, with inflective changes and more functional words, and more complete expressions and more types of sentences, with more wh-questions, negations, as well as sentences with more tenses and aspects. From the perspective of semantics, the second child makes fewer mistakes of overgeneralization and undergeneralization.
Similarities: the utterance of these two children can’t be interpreted in terms of cooperative principle, because both of them do not have the ability to make an ideal conversation with adequate information and perspicuous expressions.
(本题考查儿童的母语习得。)